Portraits of Readers
Preconventional (ages 3-5)
Preconventional learners display curiosity about books and reading. They enjoy listening to books and may have favorites. Children focus mostly on illustrations at this stage as they talk about the story. They love songs and books with rhythm, repetition, and rhyme. Students participate in reading by chiming in when adults read aloud, and children at this age often enjoy hearing the same stories read aloud over and over. Preconventional readers are interested in environmental print, such as restaurant and traffic signs, labels, and logos. Children hold books correctly, turning the pages as they look at the illustrations. They know some letter names and can read and write their first name.
Emerging (ages 4-6)
At the Emerging stage, children are curious about print and see themselves as potential readers. They may pretend to read familiar poems and books. Children rely on the illustrations to tell a story but are beginning to focus on the print. They participate in readings of familiar books and often begin to memorize favorites like Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? (Bill Martin, Jr., 1967). Children begin to make connections between books read aloud, and their own lives and experiences. They enjoy rhyming and playing with words. Emerging readers know most letter names and some letter sounds. They recognize some names, signs, and familiar words. These children are often highly motivated to learn to read and may move through this stage quickly.
Developing (ages 5-7)
These children see themselves as readers. They can read books with simple patterns, like Dear Zoo (Rod Campbell, 1982) or Quick as a Cricket (Audrey Wood, 1990) or simple texts like Go Dog Go (P.D. Eastman, 1961). Later in this stage, they can read books with patterns that vary more, like Just for You (Mercer Mayer, 1975), or Cookie’s Week (Cindy Ward, 1988). They begin to look at books independently for short periods of time (5-10 minutes) and like to share books with others. Developing readers know most letter sounds and can read simple words (such as “dog” and “me”) and a few sight words (such as “have” and “love”). Recognizing patters and word families helps readers generalize what they know about one word to similar new words. They use both print and illustrations to make meaning as they read. Children often read aloud word by word, particularly with a new text. They gain fluency with familiar books and repeated readings. These young readers can retell the main idea of a story and participate in whole group discussions of literature. This is another stage that children may pass through quickly.
Beginning (ages 6-8)
Beginning readers rely more on print than on illustrations to create meaning. When they read aloud, they understand basic punctuation, such as periods, question marks, and exclamation marks. At first, they read simple early readers, like Sammy the Seal (Syd Hoff, 1959) and picture books with repetition, like The Napping House (Audry Wood, 1984). Students take a big step forward when they learn to read longer books, like The Cat in the Hat (1957) or Green Eggs and Ham (1960) by Dr. Seuss. Later in this stage, they can read more difficult early readers, such as Frog and Toad Together (Arnold Lobel, 1971) and more challenging picture books, such as A Bargain for Francis (Russell Hoban, 1970). They often enjoy simple series books, such as the Little Bear books by Else Minarik or the humorous Commander Toad series by Jane Yolen. Many of these books are labeled “I can Read” books on the covers. Beginning readers take a developmental leap as they begin to integrate reading strategies (meaning, sentence structure, and phonics cues). They are able to read silently for 10-15 minutes. These children know many words by sight and occasionally correct themselves when their reading doesn’t make sense. They are able to discuss the characters and events in a story with the teacher’s help. When they read simple nonfiction texts, such as Mighty Spiders (Fay Robinson, 1996) or Dancing with the Manatees (Fair McNulty, 1994), they are able to talk about when they learn. It may take significantly longer for children to move through this stage since there is a wide range of text complexity at this level.
Expanding (ages 7-9)
At the Expanding stage, students solidify skills as they read beginning chapter books. Many children read series books and re-read old favorites while stretching into new types of reading. In the early part of this stage, they may read short series books, like Pee Wee Scouts (Judy Denton) or Pinky and Rex (James Howe). As they build fluency, students often devour series books, like Cam Jansen (David Adler), Bailey School Kids (Debbie Dadey and Marcia Thornton Jones), or Amber Brown (Paula Danziger). They may also read nonfiction texts on a topic, such as Pompeii . . . Buried Alive! (Edith Kunhardt, 1987). Students are learning how to choose books at their reading level and can read silently for 15-30 minutes. They read aloud fluently and begin to self-correct when they make mistakes or their reading doesn’t make sense. They can usually figure out difficult words but are still building their reading vocabulary. At this stage, children use a variety of reading strategies independently. These students make connections between reading and writing and their own experiences. Expanding readers are able to compare characters and events from different stories. They can talk about their own reading strategies and set goals with adult help.
Bridging (ages 8-10)
This is a stage of consolidation when students strengthen their skills by reading long books with more complex plots, characters, and vocabulary. They often choose well known children’s books, such as the Ramona books (Beverly Cleary) or the Encyclopedia Brown series (Donald Sobol). Students also enjoy more recent series, like Goosebumps (R.L. Stine), Animorphs (K.A. Applegate), and the Baby-sitters Club books (Ann Martin). They may broaden their interests by reading a wider variety of materials, such as Storyworks, Contact for Kids, or Sports Illustrated for Kids magazines, or The Magic Schoolbus *(Joanna Cole) nonfiction series. They begin to read aloud with expression and often memorize some of the humorous poetry by Shel Silverstein and Jack Prelutsky. With adult guidance, Bridging readers can use resources, such as encyclopedias and the Internet, to find information. They can respond to issues and ideas in books, as well as facts and story events. Many students are able to make connections between their reading and other books and authors. Students at this stage begin to support their opinions with reasons and examples during small group literature discussions.
Fluent (ages 9-11)
By the Fluent stage, students are well launched as independent readers. They read challenging children’s literature in various genres for longer periods of time (30-40 minutes). Many readers begin to enjoy mysteries, like the Nancy Drew (Carolyn Keene) and Hardy Boys (Franklin Dixon) series and survival books like Hatchet (Gary Paulsen, 1987) and On the Far Side of the Mountain (Jean Craighead George, 1990). Other children prefer fantasy books, like James and the Giant Peach (1961) or Matilda (1988) by Roald Dahl. The books they read contain fully developed characters and more challenging plots than in the previous stage. They can use resources, such as a dictionary and thesaurus, to learn new words and can find information in encyclopedias and on the Internet. Many readers enjoy magazines like World: National Geographic for Kids, American Girl, or Time for Kids. Students contribute thoughtful responses when they write or talk about books and begin to “read between the lines” to get at deeper levels of meaning. They are learning to evaluate their own reading strategies and set goals.
Proficient (ages 10-13)
Proficient readers seek out complex children’s literature and can choose books to read independently. They read a variety of genres, such as realistic fiction, historical fiction, biographies, nonfiction and poetry. These books are sometimes set in other countries and time periods. Novels often deal with complex issues such as survival (e.g., Island of the Blue Dolphin by Scott O’Dell, 1960), death (e.g., Bridge to Terabithia by Katherine Paterson, 1977), or war (e.g., Number the Stars by Lois Lowry, 1989). Students are able to talk about the theme, author’s purpose, style, and author’s craft. Proficient readers begin to write and talk about literature at a deeper level and use reasons and examples to support their opinions. They delve into topics by reading both fiction and nonfiction materials and can locate information on a topic using several resources independently. Some students at the Proficient stage enjoy challenging magazines, such as Zillions: Consumer Reports for Kids.
Connecting (ages 11-14)
At the Connecting stage, students read both complex children’s literature and young adult literature. These books include fully developed plots that often focus on complex issues, such as freedom, truth, good and evil, and human rights. Books like Nothing but the Truth (Avi, 1991) or Slave Dancer (Paula Fox, 1973) often require background knowledge and the ability to examine multiple perspectives on an issue. Many books include sophisticated language (such as the Redwall series by Brian Jacques), or complex plot (like A Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine L’Engle, 1962). Other books, like The Giver (Lois Lowry, 1993), Wringer (Jerry Spinelli, 1997), or The Last book in the Universe (Rodman Philbrick, 2000), raise challenging issues. Characters in these novels are often approaching adolescence. Students at this stage read a variety of genres independently and are able to integrate information from fiction and nonfiction to develop a deeper understanding of a topic. They can contribute to and sustain discussions about what they read and start developing criteria for evaluating literature. They seek recommendations and opinions about books from others. Connecting readers are able to set reading goals and challenges for themselves independently.
Independent
Students at this stage read both young adult and adult literature. These books often focus on issues of growing up and entering adulthood. They include multiple characters who encounter complex issues and challenging obstacles. Some examples of young adult novels are Ironman (Chris Crutcher, 1995), The Devil’s Arithmetic (Uane Yolen, 1988), The Golden Compass (Philip Pullmane, 1995), Shabanu (Suzanne Fisher Staples, 1989), and the Lord of the Rings series by J.R.R. Tolkien. These students read a range of sophisticated materials for pleasure, to learn information, and to solve problems. For instance, they may read newspapers and magazines, download information of the Internet, or read longer biographies, such as Eleanor Roosevelt by Russell Freedman (1993). When they respond to literature during discussions or in writing, students add insightful comments as they make connections between other books and authors, their background knowledge, and their own lives. They stick with complex reading challenges and are able to evaluate and analyze what they read. Independent readers are interested in hearing other perspectives and sharing their opinions about what they have read.
